LARGE INTESTINE (COLON)  Congenital anomalies  1. Hirschsprung's disease produces a markedly distended colon, usually proximal to the rectum. Caused by a section of aganglionic colon, which failed to develop normally due to the absence of ganglion cells). This results in bowel obstruction and distention of the bowel proximal to the affected...

The endocrine system along with the nervous system functions in the regulation of body activities.  The nervous system acts through electrical impulses and neurotransmitters to cause muscle contraction and glandular secretion and interpretation of impulses.  The endocrine system acts through chemical messengers called hormones that influence growth, development, and metabolic...

Properties of cardiac muscle Cardiac muscle is a striated muscle like the skeletal muscle , but it is different from the skeletal muscle in being involuntary and syncytial . Syncytium means that cardiac muscle cells are able to excite and contract together due to the presence of gap junctions between...

SGLT-2 Inhibitors canagliflozin empagliflozin Mechanism glucose is reabsorbed in the proximal tubule of the nephron by the sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) SGLT2-inhibitors lower serum glucose by increasing urinary glucose excretion the mechanism of action is independent of insulin secretion or action Clinical use type II DM

Flucloxacillin, important even now for its resistance to beta-lactamases produced by bacteria such as Staphylococcus species. It is still no match for MRSA (Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus). The last in the line of true penicillins were the antipseudomonal penicillins, such as ticarcillin, useful for their activity against Gram-negative bacteria

Respiratory Pathology A. Pulmonary infections 1. Bacterial pneumonia a. Is an inflammatory process of infectious origin affecting the pulmonary parenchyma. 2. Bacterial infections include: a. Streptococcus pneumoniae (most common). b. Staphylococcus aureus. c. Haemophilus influenzae. d. Klebsiella pneumoniae. e. Anaerobic bacteria from the mouth (aspiration of oral secretions). 3. Viral...

INFLAMMATION Response of living tissue to injury, involving neural, vascular and cellular response. ACUTE INFLAMMATION It involves the formation of a protein .rich and cellullar exudate and the cardinal signs are calor, dolor, tumour, rubor and function loss   The basic components of the response are Haemodynamic changes. Permeability changes...

Muscles of the larynx Extrinsic muscles     suprahyoid: raise larynx, depress mandible for swallowing     infrahyoid: lower larynx for swallowing     both stabilize hyoid for tongue movements

Biochemical examination This is a method by which the metabolic disturbances of disease are investigated by assay of various normal and abnormal compounds in the blood, urine, etc.

Gastric acid secretion inhibitors (antisecretory drugs):  HCl is secreted by parietal cells of the gastric mucosa which contain receptors for acetylcholine (muscarinic receptors: MR), histamine (H2R), prostaglandins (PGR) and gastrin (GR) that stimulate the production, except PGs which inhibit gastric acid production.   Therefore, antagonists of acetylcholine, histamine and gastrin...

Antipsychotic Drugs A.    Neuroleptics: antipsychotics; refers to ability of drugs to suppress motor activity and emotional expression (e.g., chlorpromazine shuffle) Uses: primarily to treat symptoms of schizophrenia (thought disorder); also for psychoses (include drug-induced from amphetamine and cocaine), agitated states Psychosis: variety of mental disorders (e.g., impaired perceptions, cognition, inappropriate...

Arrangement of Teeth in Complete Dentures The arrangement of teeth in complete dentures is a critical aspect of prosthodontics that affects both the function and aesthetics of the prosthesis. The following five principal factors must be considered when arranging teeth for complete dentures: 1. Position of the Arch Definition: The...