📖 General Pathology

SMALL INTESTINE 

Congenital anomalies 

1. Meckel's diverticulum (a true diverticulum) is due to persistence of the omphalomesenteric vitelline duct. 
2. Atresia is a congenital absence of a region of bowel, leaving a blind pouch or solid fibrous cord. 
3. Stenosis refers to a narrowing of any region of the gastrointestinal tract, which may cause obstruction. 
4. Duodenal diverticula are areas of congenital weakness permitting saccular enlargement. The duodenum is the most common region of the small bowel to contain diverticula. 
5. Diverticula of jejunum and ileum are herniations of mucosa and submucosa at points where the mesenteric vessels and nerves enter. 

Infections

1. Bacterial enterocolitis may be caused by the ingestion of preformed bacterial toxins, producing symptoms ranging from severe but transient nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea (Staphylococcus aureus toxin) to lethal paralysis (Clostridium botulinum toxin). Ingestion of toxigenic bacteria with colonization of the gut (e.g., Vibrio cholera, toxigenic E. coli, various species of Campylobacter jejuni, Shigella, salmonel
Yersinia, and many others) is another potential cause. 

2. Nonbacterial gastroenterocolitis
a. Viral 
(1) Rotavirus (children)
(2) Parvovirus (adults) 
b. Fungal-Candida 
c. Parasitic 
(1 ) Entamoeba histolytica 
(2) Giardia lamblia 

3. In HIV patients. Causes of infectious diarrhea in HIV patients include Cryptosporidium, Microsporidia, isospora belli, CMV, and M. avium-intracellulare. 

C. Malabsorption is defined as impaired intestinal absorption of dietary constituents. 
Clinical features include diarrhea,steatorrhea, weakness, lassitude, and weight loss. Steatorrhea results in deficiency of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) and calcium. 

1. Celiac sprue
a. Etiology. Celiac sprue (nontropical sprue or gluten enteropathy) is caused by an allergic, immunologic, or toxic reaction to the gliadin component of gluten. There is a genetic predisposition. 

Symptoms:
– Steatorrhea, abdominal distention, flatulence, fatigue, and weight loss

Complications:
– Iron and vitamin deficiency
– Risk of lymphoma (T-cell type)

Extraintestinal manifestation:
– Dermatitis herpetiformis (a pruritic papulovesicular rash with IgA deposits at the dermoepidermal junction) 

2. Tropical sprue

Etiology. Tropical sprue is of unknown etiology, but may be  caused by enterotoxigenic E. coli. 

3. Disaccharidase deficiency is due to a deficiency of brush border enzymes. Lactase deficiency is most common. 

4. Diverticulosis Coli

- Acquired colonic diverticula are present in nearly half of the population over the age of 50
- Diverticula are associated with low-fiber, low-residue diets
- Etiology is most likely high intraluminal pressure required for propulsion of hard, small stools
- Complications include hemorrhage, acute diverticulitis, perforation, fistula formation 

Obstructive lesions

Hernias cause 15% of small intestinal obstruction. They are due to a protrusion of a serosa-lined sac through a weakness in the wall of the peritoneal cavity. They occur most commonly at the inguinal and femoral canals, at the umbilicus, and with scars. They may lead to entrapment, incarceration, and strangulation of the bowel. 

Tumors of the small bowel account for only 5% of gastrointestinal tumors. 

Benign tumors in descending order of frequency include:
leiomyomas, lipomas, adenomas (polyps), angiomas, and fibromas. Adenomatous polyps are most common in the stomach and duodenum and may be single or multiple, sessile or pedunculated. The larger the polyp, the greater the incidence of malignant transformation. 

Malignant tumors, in descending order of frequency, include: endocrine cell tumors, lymphomas, adenocarcinomas, and leiomyosarcomas. 

Idiopathic Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)

- Chronic, relapsing, idiopathic inflamamtory disease of the GI tract
Crohn’s Disease
– Transmural granulomatous disease affecting any portion of the GI tract
Ulcerative Colitis
– Superficial, non-granulomatous inflammatory disease restricted to the colon

Ulcerative Colitis
- Bloody mucoid diarrhea, rarely toxic megacolon
- Can begin at any age, peaks at 20-25 years
- Annual incidence of ~10 per 100,000 in US
- Negligible risk of cancer in the first 10 years, but 1% per year risk of cancer thereafter
- Good response to total colectomy if medical therapy fails

Macroscopic
- Normal serosa
- Bowel normal thickness
- Continuous disease
- Confluent mucosal ulceration
- Pseudopolyp formation

Microscopic
- Crypt distortion + shortening
- Paneth cell metaplasia
- Diffuse mucosal inflammation
- Crypt abscesses
- Mucin depletion
- Mucosal ulceration

Crohn’s Disease

- Variable and elusive clinical presentation with diarrhea, pain, weight loss, anorexia, fever
- Can begin at any age, peaks at 15-25 years
- Annual incidence of ~3 per 100,000 in US
- Many GI complications and extracolonic manifestations
- Risk of cancer less than in UC
- Poor response to surgery 

Macroscopic
Fat wrapping
Thickened bowel wall
Skip Lesions
Stricture formation
Cobblestoned mucosa
Ulceration

Microscopic
- Cryptitis and crypt abscesses
- Transmural inflammation
- Lymphoid aggregates +/- granulomas
- “Crohn’s rosary”
- Fissuring
- Neuromuscular hyperplasia