📖 Pharmacology
Ampicillin
PharmacologyAmpicillin offered a broader spectrum of activity than either of the original penicillins and allowed doctors to treat a broader range of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative infections. Ampicillin is often used in molecular biology as a test for the uptake of genes (e.g., by plasmids) by bacteria (e.g., E. coli)
Different Systems of the CNS & their functions
PharmacologyDifferent Systems of the CNS & their functions
These systems are pathways formed of specific parts of the brain and the neurons connecting them.
They include:
1.The pyramidal system
2.The extrapyramidal system
3.The limbic system
4.The reticular formation
5.The tuberohypophyseal system
The pyramidal system:
It originates from the motor area of the cerebral cortex and passes through the spinal cord, therefore it is also known as the “corticospinaltract”.
It is responsible for the regulation of the fine voluntary movements.
The extrapyramidal system:
It also controls the motor functionbut involves areas other than the corticospinal tract.
It is involved in the regulation of gross voluntary movements, thus it complements the function of the pyramidal system.
The “basal ganglia” constitute an essential part of this system.
Degenerative changes in the pathway running from the “substantianigra”to the “corpus striatum”(or nigrostriatal pathway) may cause tremors and muscle rigidity characteristic of “Parkinson’s disease”.
The limbic system:
The major parts of this system are: the hypothalamus, the basal ganglia, the hippocampus(responsible for short term memory), and some cortical areas.
The limbic system is involved in the control of “behavior”& “emotions”.
The reticular formation:
It is composed of interlacing fibers and nerve cells that run in all directions beginning from the upper part of the spinal cord and extending upwards.
It is important in the control of “consciousness” and “wakefulness”.
The tuberohypophyseal system:
It is a group of short neurons running from the hypothalamusto the hypophysis(pituitary gland) regulating its secretions.
Epilepsy
Pharmacology
Epilepsy
- Abnormal synchronous APs of groups of neurons in various parts of brain
- Many casues (infection, fever, tumors, injury, lyte imbalance, etc)
- Therapy aimed to reduce excitability of neurons
1.Increasing GABA
Benzodiazepines (Clonazepam, Diazepam) - Diazepam used for status epilepticus
Barbiturates (Phenobarbital)- Benzos and Barbituates increase GABA channel - hyperpolarization of neurons
Gabapentin - Increases gaba release
Valproic acid - Increases GABA, also blocks Na+ and Ca2+ channels, and increase K+ conductance
2.Alter transmembrane flow of ions
Phenytoin- Blocks Na+ channels
Carbamazepine - Blocks Na+ channels and potentiates postsynaptic effect of GABA
Ethosuximde - Blocks Ca2+ channels
Iamotrigine - Blocks Na+ channels
3. Decrease glutamate excitatory tone
Glutamate antagonists have too many side effects and none are on the market as anticonvulstants yet
Pharmacokinetics
PharmacologyPharmacokinetics
Pharmacokinetics is the way that the body deals with a drug - how that drug moves throughout the body, and how the body metabolizes and excretes it. The factors and processes involved in pharmacokinetics must be considered when choosing the most effective dose, route and schedule for a drug's use.
The four processes involved in pharmacokinetics are:
Absorption: The movement of a drug from its site of administration into the blood.
Several factors influence a drug's absorption:
- Rate of Dissolution: the faster a drug dissolves the faster it can be absorbed, and the faster the effects will begin.
- Surface Area: Larger surface area = faster absorption.
- Blood Flow: Greater blood flow at the site of drug administration = faster absorption.
- Lipid Solubility: High lipid solubility = faster absorption
- pH Partitioning: A drug that will ionize in the blood and not at the site of administration will absorb more quickly.
Distribution: The movement of drugs throughout the body.
Metabolism: (Biotransformation) The enzymatic alteration of drug structure.
Excretion: The removal of drugs from the body.
As a drug moves through the body, it must cross membranes. Some important factors to consider here then are:
Body's cells are surrounded by a bilayer of phospholipids (cell membrane).
There are three ways that a substance can cross cell membranes:
- Passing through channels and pores: only very small molecules can cross cell membranes this way.
- Transport Systems: Selective carriers that may or may not use ATP.
- Direct Penetration of the Cell Membrane: