Study Notes

Cardiac Control: The Cardiac Center in the medulla. Outputs: The cardioacceleratory center sends impulses through the sympathetic nervous system in the cardiac nerves. These fibers innervate the SA node and AV node and the ventricular myocardium. Effects on the SA and AV nodes are an increase in depolarization rate by reducing the resting membrane polarization. Effect on the myocardium is to increase contractility thus increasing force and therefore volume of …

Transforming Growth Factor-Beta (TGF-β) Transforming Growth Factor-Beta (TGF-β) is a multifunctional cytokine that plays a critical role in various biological processes, including development, tissue repair, immune regulation, and inflammation. Understanding its functions and mechanisms is essential for appreciating its significance in health and disease. Overview of TGF-β Half-Life: Active TGF-β has a very short half-lif…

Histamine:  Involved in inflammatory and anaphylactic reactions  Local application causes swelling redness, and edema, mimicking a mild inflammatory reaction. Large systemic doses leads to profound vascular changes similar to those seen after shock or anaphylactic origin. Storage: widely distributed; in tissues, primarily in mast cells; in blood- in basophils, platelets; non-mast cell sites (epidermis, CNS, regenerating cells) Histamine Stored…

Number Anomalies A. Hypodontia (Missing Teeth) Classifications: Hypodontia: 1-6 missing teeth Oligodontia: >6 missing teeth Anodontia: Complete absence Most commonly missing: Third molars (wisdom teeth) Maxillary lateral incisors Mandibular second premolars B. Hyperdontia (Supernumerary Teeth) Types: Mesiodens: Between central incisors Paramolar: Buccal/lingual to molars Distomolar: Distal to third molars Size Anomalies A. Mic…

Acute tubular necrosis Characterized by impaired kidney functions due to the destruction of the renal tubule epithelium. Caused by a variety of conditions that lead to ischemia of the renal tubules, usually resulting from renal tubular injury or problems with vascular flow. It can also be induced by ingesting toxins or drug-related toxicity (e.g., gentamicin).  The most common cause of acute renal failure. Is a reversible condition, although it can be f…