• BONES OF THE CRANIUM   Occipital (1) Frontal    (1) Sphenoid (1) Ethmoid  (1) Parietal    (2) Temporal  (2)

  BONES OF THE FACE   Mandible (1) Vomer     (1) Maxillae  (2) Zygomae  (2) Lacrimal   (2) Nasal        (2) Inferior nasal conchae (2) Palatine     (2)

   

Muscles Around the Mouth

• The sphincter of the mouth is orbicularis oris and the dilator muscles radiate outward from the lips like the spokes of a wheel.

Orbicularis Oris Muscle

• This muscle encircles the mouth and is the sphincter of the oral aperture
• This muscle (1) closes the lips, (2) protrudes them and (3) compresses them against the teeth.
• It plays an important role in articulation and mastication. Together with the buccinator muscle, it helps to hold the food between the teeth during mastication.

Zygomaticus Major Muscle

• It extends from the zygomatic bone to the angle of the mouth.
• It draws the corner of the moth superolaterally during smiling and laughing.

Zygomaticus Minor Muscle

• This is a narrow slip of muscle, and passes obliquely from the zygomatic bone to the orbicularis oris.
• It helps raise the upper lip when showing contempt or to deepen the nasolabial sulcus when showing sadness.

The Buccinator Muscle

• This is a thin, flat, rectangular muscle.
• It is attached laterally to the alveolar processes of the maxilla and mandible, opposite the molar teeth and the pterygomandibular raphe.
• Medially, its fibres mingle with those of orbicularis oris.Innervation: the buccal branch of facial.

• It aids mastication and swallowing by pushing the cheeks against the molar teeth during chewing.

Stylohyoid Muscle

• Origin: Posterior border of the styloid process of the temporal bone.
• Insertion: Body of the hyoid bone at the junction with the greater horn.
• Nerve Supply: Facial nerve (CN VII).
• Arterial Supply: Muscular branches of the facial artery and muscular branches of the occipital artery.
• Action: Elevates the hyoid bone and base of the tongue.

Muscles of the Tongue

• The tongue is divided into halves by a medial fibrous lingual septum that lies deep to the medial groove.
• In each half of the tongue there are four extrinsic and four intrinsic muscles.

• The lingual muscles are all supplied by the hypoglossal nerve (CN XII).
• The only exception is palatoglossus, which is supplied by the pharyngeal branch of the vagus nerve, via the pharyngeal plexus.

Extrinsic Muscles of the Tongue

The Genioglossus Muscle

• This is a bulky, fan-shaped muscle that contributes to most of the bulk of the tongue.

• It arises from a short tendon from the genial tubercle (mental spine) of the mandible.
• It fans out as it enters the tongue inferiorly and its fibres attach to the entire dorsum of the tongue.
• Its most inferior fibres insert into the body of the hyoid bone.

• The genioglossus muscle depresses the tongue and its posterior part protrudes it.

The Hyoglossus Muscle

• This is a thin, quadrilateral muscle.

• It arises from the body and greater horn of the hyoid bone and passes superoanteriorly to insert into the side and inferior aspect of the tongue.

• It depresses the tongue, pulling its sides inferiorly; it also aids in retrusion of the tongue.

The Styloglossus Muscle

• This small, short muscle arises from the anterior border of the styloid process near its tip and from the stylohyoid ligament.
• It passes inferoanteriorly to insert into the side and inferior aspect of the tongue.

• The styloglossus retrudes the tongue and curls its sides to create a trough during swallowing. 

The Palatopharyngeus Muscle

• Superior attachment: hard palate and palatine aponeurosis.
• Inferior attachment: lateral wall of pharynx.
• Innervation: cranial part of accessory nerve (CN XI) through the pharyngeal branch of vagus (CN X) via the pharyngeal plexus.

• This thin, flat muscle is covered with mucous membrane to form the palatopharyngeal arch.
• It passes posteroinferiorly in this arch.

• This muscle tenses the soft palate and pulls the walls of the pharynx superiorly, anteriorly and medially during swallowing. 

Intrinsic Muscles of the Tongue

The Superior Longitudinal Muscle of the Tongue

• The muscle forms a thin layer deep to the mucous membrane on the dorsum of the tongue, running from its tip to its root.
• It arises from the submucosal fibrous layer and the lingual septum and inserts mainly into the mucous membrane.

• This muscle curls the tip and sides of the tongue superiorly, making the dorsum of the tongue concave.

The Inferior Longitudinal Muscle of the Tongue

• This muscle consists of a narrow band close to the inferior surface of the tongue.
• It extends from the tip to the root of the tongue.
• Some of its fibres attach to the hyoid bone.

• This muscle curls the tip of the tongue inferiorly, making the dorsum of the tongue convex.

The Transverse Muscle of the Tongue

• This muscle lies deep to the superior longitudinal muscle.
• It arises from the fibrous lingual septum and runs lateral to its right and left margins.
• Its fibres are inserted into the submucosal fibrous tissue.

• The transverse muscle narrows and increases the height of the tongue.

The Vertical Muscle of the Tongue

• This muscle runs inferolaterally from the dorsum of the tongue.
• It flattens and broadens the tongue.
• Acting with the transverse muscle, it increases the length of the tongue.

Appendicular Skeleton
Upper extremity
•    Shoulder-clavicle and scapula

Clavicle
    Articulates with the manubrium at the sternal end
    Articulates with the scapula at the lateral end
    Slender S-shaped bone that extends horizontally across the upper part of the thorax
    
Scapula

    Triangular bone with the base upward and the apex downward
    Lateral aspect contains the glenoid cavity that articulates with the head of the humerus
    Spine extends across the upper part of the posterior surface; expands laterally and
    forms the acromion (forms point of shoulder) 
    Coracoid process projects anteriorly from the upper part of the neck of the scapula
    
Arm (humerus)

Consists of a shaft (diaphysis) and two ends (epiphyses)
Proximal end has a head that articulates with the glenoid fossa of the scapula
Greater and lesser tubercles lie below the head

Intertubercular groove is located between them; long tendon of the biceps attaches here
Surgical neck is located below the tubercles

    o    Radial groove runs obliquely on the posterior surface; radial nerve is located here

    o    Deltoid muscles attaches in a V-shaped area in the middle of the shaft. called the deltoid tuberosity
    
Distal end has two projections. the medial and lateral epicondyles
Capitulum-articulates with the radius
Trochlea-articulates with the ulqa

Forearm

Radius
Lateral bone of the forearm
Radial tuberosity is located below the head on the medial side
Distal end is broad for articulation with the wrist: has a styloid process on its lateral side

Ulna

    Medial side of the forearm
    Conspicuous part of the elbow joint (olecranon)
    Curved surface that articulates with the trochlea of the humerus is the trochlearnotch
    Lateral ide is concave (radial notch); articulates with the head of the radius Distal end contains the styloid process 
    Distal end contains the styloid process

Hand

Carpal bones (8)
    Aranged in two rows of four
    Scaphoid. lunate. triquetral. and pisiform  proximal row); trapezium. trapezoid.
    capitate. and hamate (distal row)
    
Metacarpal bones (5)
    Framework of the hand
    Numbered 1 to 5 beginning on the lateral side
    
Phalanges (14)
    Fingers
     Three phalanges in each finger; two phalanges in the thumb

Sternum

o    Forms the medial part of the anterior chest wall
o    Manubrium (upper part)-clavicle and first rib articulate with the manubrium .
o    Body (middle blade)-second and tenth ribs articulate with the body via the costal cartilages
o    Xiphoid (blunt cartilaginous tip)

Ribs (12 pairs)

o    Each rib articulates with both the body and the transverse process of its corresponding
o    thoracic vertebra
o    The second to ninth ribs articulate with the body of the vertebra above'
o    Ribs curve outward, forward, and then downward
o    Anteriorly, each of the first seven ribs joins a costal cartilage that attaches to the sternum
o    Next three ribs (eighth to tenth) join the cartilage of the rib above
o    Eleventh and twelfth ribs do not attach to the sternum; are called "floating ribs"