Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

GnRH is a peptide of 10 amino acids. Its secretion at the onset of puberty triggers sexual development.

Primary Effects

FSH and LH Relaese

Secondary Effects

Increases estrogen and progesterone (in females)

testosterone Relaese (in males)

Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)

GHRH is a mixture of two peptides, one containing 40 amino acids, the other 44.  GHRH stimulates cells in the anterior lobe of the pituitary to secrete growth hormone (GH).

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)

CRH is a peptide of 41 amino acids. Its acts on cells in the anterior lobe of the pituitary to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) CRH is also synthesized by the placenta and seems to determine the duration of pregnancy.  It may also play a role in keeping the T cells of the mother from mounting an immune attack against the fetus

Somatostatin

Somatostatin is a mixture of two peptides, one of 14 amino acids, the other of 28. Somatostatin acts on the anterior lobe of the pituitary to

• inhibit the release of growth hormone (GH)
• inhibit the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

Somatostatin is also secreted by cells in the pancreas and in the intestine where it inhibits the secretion of a variety of other hormones.

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and Oxytocin

These peptides are released from the posterior lobe of the pituitary

Membrane Structure & Function

Cell Membranes

• Cell membranes are phospholipid bilayers (2 layers)
• Bilayer forms a barrier to passage of molecules in an out of cell
• Phospholipids = glycerol + 2 fatty acids + polar molecule (i.e., choline) + phosphate
• Cholesterol (another lipid) stabilizes cell membranes
• the hydrophobic tails of the phospholipids (fatty acids) are together in the center of the bilayer. This keeps them out of the water

Membranes Also Contain Proteins

• Proteins that penetrate the membrane have hydrophobic sections ~25 amino acids long
• Hydrophobic = doesn't like water = likes lipids
• Membrane proteins have many functions:
  • receptors for hormones
  • pumps for transporting materials across the membrane
  • ion channels
  • adhesion molecules for holding cells to extracellular matrix

cell recognition antigens

Function of Blood

• transport through the body of
  • oxygen and carbon dioxide
  • food molecules (glucose, lipids, amino acids)
  • ions (e.g., Na⁺, Ca²⁺, HCO₃⁻)
  • wastes (e.g., urea)
  • hormones
  • heat
• defense of the body against infections and other foreign materials. All the WBCs participate in these defenses

Lipids:

• about 40% of the dry mass of a typical cell
• composed largely of carbon & hydrogen
• generally insoluble in water
• involved mainly with long-term energy storage; other functions are as structural components (as in the case of phospholipids that are the major building block in cell membranes) and as "messengers" (hormones) that play roles in communications within and between cells
• Subclasses include:
  • Triglycerides - consist of one glycerol molecule + 3 fatty acids (e.g., stearic acid in the diagram below). Fatty acids typically consist of chains of 16 or 18 carbons (plus lots of hydrogens).
  • phospholipids - Composed of 2 fatty acids, glycerol, phosphate and polar groups , phosphate group (-PO⁴) substitutes for one fatty acid & these lipids are an important component of cell membranes

steroids - have 4 rings- cholesterol, some hormones, found in membranes include testosterone, estrogen, & cholesterol

Micturition (urination) is a process, by which the final urine is eliminated out of the body .
After being drained into the ureters, urine is stored in urinary bladder until being eliminated.

Bladder is a hollow muscular organ, which has three layers:

- epithelium : Composed of superficial layer of flat cells and deep layer of cuboidal cells.

- muscular layer : contain smooth muscle fibers, that are arranged in longitudinal, spiral and circular pattern . Detrusor  muscle is the main muscle of bladder. The thickening of detrusor muscle forms internal urinary sphinctor which is not an actual urinary sphincter. The actual one is the external urinary sphincter, which is composed of striated muscle and is a part of urogenital diaphragm.

- adventitia: composed of connective tissue fibers.

So: There are two phases of bladder function that depend on characterestics of its muscular wall and innervation :

1. Bladder filling : Urine is poured into bladder through the orifices of ureters. Bladder has five peristaltic contraction per minute . These contraction facilitate moving of urine from the ureter to the bladder as prevent reflux of urine into the ureter.. The capacity of bladder is about  400  ml. But when the bladder start filling its wall extends and thus the pressure is not increased with the increased urine volume.

2. Bladder emptying : When bladder is full stretch receptors in bladder wall are excited , and send signals via the sensory branches of pelvic nerves to the sacral plexus. The first urge to void is felt at a bladder volume of about 150 ml. In sacral portion of spinal cord the sensory signals are integrated and then a motor signal is sent to the urinarry blader muscles through the efferent branches of pelvic nerve itself.

In adult people the neurons in sacral portion could be influenced by nerve signals coming from brain ( Micturition center in pons ) that are also influenced by signals coming from cerebral cortex.

So: The sensory signals ,transmitted to the sacral region will also stimulate ascending pathway and the signals be also transmitted to the micturition center in the brain stem and then to the cerebrum to cause conscious desire for urination.

If micturition is not convenient the brain sends signals to inhibit the parasympathetic motor neuron to the bladder via the sacral neurons. 

It also send inhibitory signal via the somatomotor pudendal nerve to keep external urinary sphincter contracting.

When micturition is convenient a brain signal via the sacral neurons stimulate the parasympathetic pelvic nerve to cause contraction of detruser muscle via M-cholinergic receptors and causes relaxation of external urinary sphincter and the micturition occurs.

Sympathetic hypogastric nerve does not contribute that much to the micturition reflex. It plays role in prvrntion reflux of semen into urinary bladder during ejaculation by contracting bladder muscles.

Contractility : Means ability of cardiac muscle to convert electrical energy of action potential into mechanical energy ( work).
The excitation- contraction coupling of cardiac muscle is similar to that of skeletal muscle , except the lack of motor nerve stimulation. 

Cardiac muscle is a self-excited muscle , but the principles of contraction are the same . There are many rules that control the contractility of the cardiac muscles, which are:

1. All or none rule: due to the syncytial nature of the cardiac muscle.There are atrial syncytium and ventricular syncytium . This rule makes the heart an efficient pump.

2. Staircase phenomenon : means gradual increase in muscle contraction following rapidly repeated stimulation..

3. Starling`s law of the heart: The greater the initial length of cardiac muscle fiber , the greater the force of contraction. The initial length is determined by the degree of diastolic filling .The pericardium prevents overstretching of heart , and allows optimal increase in diastolic volume.

Thankful to this law , the heart is able to pump any amount of blood that it receives. But overstretching of cardiac muscle fibers may cause heart failure.

Factors affecting  contractility ( inotropism)

I. Positive inotropic factors:

1. sympathetic stimulation: by increasing the permeability of sarcolemma to calcium.
2. moderate increase in temperature . This due to increase metabolism to increase ATP , decrease viscosity of myocardial structures, and increasing calcium influx.
3. Catecholamines , thyroid hormone, and glucagon hormones.
4. mild alkalosis
5. digitalis
6. Xanthines ( caffeine and theophylline )

II. Negative inotropic factors:

1. Parasympathetic stimulation : ( limited to atrial contraction)
2. Acidosis
3. Severe alkalosis
4. excessive warming and cooling .
5. Drugs ;like : Quinidine , Procainamide , and barbiturates .
6. Diphtheria and typhoid toxins.