Nephrolithiasis, urolithiasis

Formation of calculi (calcium stones) in the kidney (nephrolithiasis) or urinary tract (urolithiasis).
Commonly associated with hyperparathyroidism.
Signs and symptoms 

urinary tract obstruction, severe pain, and pyelonephritis.

Note: an enlarged prostate can also cause urinary tract obstruction in males.

Pathology

The branch of medicine dealing with the essential nature of disease, especially changes in body tissues aorgans that cause or are caused by disease. Pathology is the structural and functional manifestations of disease.

Anatomic pathology  the anatomical study of changes in the function, structure, or appearance of organs or tissues,including postmortem examinations and the study of biopsy specimens.

Cellular pathology  - Cytopathology is a diagnostic technique that examines cells from various body sites to determine the cause or the nature of disease.

Clinical pathology  pathology applied to the solution of clinical problems, especially the use of laboratory 

methods inclinical diagnosis.

Comparative pathology  that which considers human disease processes in comparison with those of other 

animals.

Oral pathology  that treating of conditions causing or resulting from morbid anatomic or functional changes in thestructures of the mouth.

Surgical pathology  the pathology of disease processes that are surgically accessible for diagnosis or treatment.

Biochemical examination

This is a method by which the metabolic disturbances of disease are investigated by assay of various normal and abnormal compounds in the blood, urine, etc.

Cholangitis

Cholangitis is inflammation of the bile ducts. 
1. It is usually associated with biliary duct obstruction by gallstones or carcinoma, which leads to infection with enteric organisms. This results in purulent exudation within the bile ducts and bile stasis. 
2. Clinically, cholangitis presents with jaundice, fever, chills. leukocytosis, and right upper quadrant pain
 

Chronic lymphocytic leukaemia

Commoner in middle age. It starts insidiously and often runs a long chronic course

Features:

- Lymphnode enlargement.
- Anaemia (with haemolytic element).
- Moderate splenomegaly.
- Haemorrhagic tendency in late stages.
- Infection.

Blood picture:

- Anaemia with features of haemolytic anaemia
- Total leucocytic count of 50-100,OOO/cu.mm.
- Upto 90-95% cells are lymphocytes and prolymphocytes.
- Thrombocytopenia may be seen.

Bone marrow.  Lymphocytic series cells-are seen. Cells of other series are reduced,
 

Surface Defence Mechanisms

1. Skin:

(i) Mechanical barrier of keratin and desquamation.

(ii) Resident commensal organisms

(iii)Acidity of sweat.

(iv) Unsaturated fatty acids of sebum

2. Oropharyngeal

(i)Resident flora

(ii) Saliva, rich in lysozyme, mucin and Immunoglobulins (lgA).

3. Gastrointestinal tract.-

(i) Gastric HCI

(ii) Commensal organisms in Intestine

(iii) Bile salts

(iv) IgA.

(v) Diarrhoeal expulsion of irritants.

4. Respiratory tract:

(i) Trapping in turbinates

(ii) Mucus trapping

(iii) Expulsion by coughing and sneezing.

(iv) Ciliary propulsion.

(V) Lysozymes and antibodies in secretion.

(vi) Phagocytosis by alveolar macrophages.

5. Urinary tract:

(i) Flushing action.

(ii) Acidity

(iii) Phagocytosis by urothelial cells.

6. Vagina.-

(i) Desquamation.

(ii) Acid barrier.

(iii) Doderlein's bacilli (Lactobacilli)

7. Conjunctiva:

Lysozymes and IgA in tears