Mefenamic acid

Analgesic, anti‐inflammatory properties less  effective than aspirin 

Short half‐lives, should not be used for longer  than one week and never in pregnancy and in  children. 

Enhances oral anticoagulants

Used to treat pain, including menstrual pain. It decreases inflammation (swelling) and uterine contractions.

SULPHONAMIDES

Derivative of  sulphonilamide (Para-amino Benzene (PABA ) sulphonamide).

Anti-bacterial spectrum

Bacteriostatic to gram + and gram - bacteria. but bactericidal concentrations arce attained in urine. S pyogencs. H influenzae.E coli, few- Staph aureus. gonococci. pneumococci, proteus, shigella and Lymphogranuloma venereum.

Mechanism of action

Inhibits bacterial folate synthetase as they compete with PABA

Less soluble in acid urine and may precipitate to cause crystalluria.

Accumulate in patients with renal failure and can cause toxicity

Classification

Shart Acting (4-8 Hrs) sulphadiazine, sulphamethizole.

Intermediate acting(8-16 Hrs): sulphamethoxazole , sulphaphenazole

Long Acting(l-7days): sulphamethoxypyridazine.

Ultralong Acting(3-8days): sulfaline

Adverse effects

I. nausea, vomiting and epigastric pain

2. crystalluria

3. hypersensitivity-like polyarthritis nodosa. Steven-Johnson Syndrome. photosenstivity

4.hemolysis in G-6PD deficiency

5. kernicterus

They inhibit metabolism of phenytoin. tolbutamide. methotrexate

Therapeutic Use

UTI Meningitis, Streptococcal pharyngitis, Bacillary Dysentery

Beta - Adrenoceptor blocking Agents

These are the agents which block the action of sympathetic nerve stimulation and circulating sympathomimetic amines on the beta adrenergic receptors. 

At the cellular level, they inhibit the activity of the membrane cAMP. The main effect is to reduce cardiac activity by diminishing β1 receptor stimulation in the heart. This decreases the rate and force of myocardial contraction of the heart, and decreases the rate of conduction of impulses through the conduction system.

Beta blockers may further be classified on basis of their site of action into following two main classes namely 

cardioselective beta blockers (selective beta 1 blockers) 

non selective beta 1 + beta 2 blockers 

Classification for beta adrenergic blocking agents.

A. Non-selective (β1+β2)

Propranolol  Sotalol  Nadolol Timolol  Alprenolol Pindolol 

With additional alpha blocking activity

Labetalol  Carvedilol  

B. β1 Selective (cardioselective)

Metoprolol  Atenolol  Bisoprolol  Celiprolol  

C. β2  Selective

Butoxamine 

Mechanisms of Action of beta blocker

Beta adrenoceptor Blockers competitively antagonize the responses to catecholamines that are mediated by beta-receptors and other
adrenomimetics at β-receptors 

Because the β-receptors of the heart are primarily of the β1 type and those in the pulmonary and vascular smooth muscle are β2 receptors, β1-selective antagonists are frequently referred to as cardioselective blockers. 

β-adrenergic receptor blockers (β blockers)
1. Used more often than α blockers.
2. Some are partial agonists (have intrinsic sympathomimetic activity).
3. Propranolol is the prototype of nonselective β blockers.
4. β blocker effects: lower blood pressure, reduce angina, reduce risk after myocardial infarction, reduce heart rate and force, have antiarrhythmic effect, cause hypoglycemia in diabetics, lower intraocular pressure.
5. Carvedilol: a nonselective β blocker that also blocks α receptors; used for heart failure.
 

Eicosanoid compounds

Prostaglandines, Leukotriens and Thromboxanes.

They are produced in minute amounts by all cells except RBCs and they act locally at the same site of synthesis.
These agents have many physiological processes as mediators and modulators of inflammatory reactions.

Routes of Drug Administration

Intravenous

• No barriers to absorption since drug is put directly into the blood.
• There is a very rapid onset for drugs administered intravenously.  This can be advantagous in emergency situations, but can also be very dangerous.
• This route offers a great deal of control in respect to drug levels in the blood.
• Irritant drugs can be administer by the IV route without risking tissue injury.
• IV drug administration is expensive, inconvenient and more difficult than administration by other routes.
• Other disadvantages include the risk of fluid overload, infection, and embolism.  Some drug formulations are completely unsafe for use intravenously.

Intramuscular:

• Only the capillary wall separates the drug from the blood, so there is not a significant barrier to the drug's absorption.
• The rate of absorption varies with the drug's solubility and the blood flow at the site of injection.
• The IM route is uncomfortable and inconvenient for the patient, and if administered improperly, can lead to tissue or nerve damage.

Subcutaneous

Same characteristics as the IM route.

Oral

• Two barriers to cross: epithelial cells and capillary wall.  To cross the epithelium, drugs have to pass through the cells.

• Highly variable drug absorption influenced by many factors:  pH, drug solubility and stability, food intake, other drugs, etc.
• Easy, convenient, and inexpensive.  Safer than parenteral injection, so that oral administration is generally the preferred route.
• Some drugs would be inactivated by this route
• Inappropriate route for some patients.
• May have some GI discomfort, nausea and vomiting.
• Types of oral meds = tablets, enteric-coated, sustained-release, etc.
• Topical, Inhalational agents, Suppositories

Methods of general anesthesia

CIRCLE SYSTEM

*HIGH-FLOW

FRESH GAS FLOW > 3 l/min.

*LOW-FLOW

FGF ok. 1l/min.

*MINIMAL-FLOW

FGF ok. 0,5 l/min.