Macrolide

The macrolides are a group of  drugs (typically antibiotics) whose activity stems from the presence of a macrolide ring, a large  lactone ring to which one or more deoxy sugars, usually cladinose and desosamine, are attached. The lactone ring can be either 14, 15 or 16-membered. Macrolides belong to the polyketide class of natural products.

The most commonly-prescribed macrolide antibiotics are:  

Erythromycin,  Clarithromycin, Azithromycin, roxithromycin,

Others are: spiramycin (used for treating  toxoplasmosis), ansamycin, oleandomycin, carbomycin and tylocine.

There is also a new class of antibiotics called ketolides that is structurally related to the macrolides. Ketolides such as telithromycin are used to fight respiratory tract infections caused by macrolide-resistant bacteria.

Non-antibiotic macrolides :The drug Tacrolimus, which is used as an

immunosuppressant, is also a macrolide. It has similar activity to  cyclosporine.

Uses : respiratory tract infections and soft tissue infections.

Beta-hemolytic  streptococci,  pneumococci, staphylococci and enterococci are usually susceptible to macrolides. Unlike penicillin, macrolides have shown effective against mycoplasma, mycobacteria, some rickettsia and chlamydia.

Mechanism of action: Inhibition of bacterial protein synthesis by binding reversibly to the subunit 50S of the bacterial ribosome, thereby inhibiting translocation of peptidyl-tRNA. This action is mainly bacteriostatic, but can also be bactericidal in high concentrations

Resistance : Bacterial resistance to macrolides occurs by alteration of the structure of the bacterial ribosome.

Amphotericin B

Main use is in systemic fungal infections (e.g. in immunocompromised patients), and in visceral leishmaniasis. Aspergillosis, cryptococcus infections (e.g. meningitis) and candidiasis are treated with amphotericin B. It is also used empirically in febrile immunocompromised patients who do not respond to broad-spectrum antibiotics.

MOA:

As with other polyene antifungals, amphotericin B associates with ergosterol, a membrane chemical of fungi, forming a pore that leads to K+ leakage and fungal cell death

Side effects: nephrotoxicity (kidney damage) , headache, vomiting, convulsions and fever

The side-effects are much milder when amphotericin B is delivered in liposomes

Antiarrhythmic Drugs

Cardiac Arrhythmias 
Can originate in any part of the conduction system or from atrial or ventricular muscle.
Result from
– Disturbances in electrical impulse formation (automaticity) 
– Conduction (conductivity) 
– Both

MECHANISMS OF ARRHYTHMIA
ARRHYTHMIA – absence of rhythm
DYSRRHYTHMIA – abnormal rhythm

ARRHYTHMIAS result from:
1. Disturbance in Impulse Formation
2. Disturbance in Impulse Conduction
- Block results from severely depressed conduction
- Re-entry or circus movement / daughter impulse

Types of Arrhythmias

• Sinus arrhythmias 
– Usually significant only 
– if they are severe or  prolonged 

• Atrial arrhythmias 
– Most significant in the presence of underlying heart disease
– Serious: atrial fibrillation can lead to the formation of clots in the heart 

• Nodal arrhythmias 
– May involve tachycardia and increased workload of the heart or bradycardia from heart block 

• Ventricular arrhythmias 
– Include premature ventricular contractions (PVCs), ventricular tachycardia, and ventricular fibrillation 

Indications
• To convert atrial fibrillation (AF) or flutter to normal sinus rhythm (NSR) 
• To maintain NSR after conversion from AF or flutter 
• When the ventricular rate is so fast or irregular that cardiac output is impaired
– Decreased cardiac output leads to symptoms of decreased systemic, cerebral, and coronary circulation 
• When dangerous arrhythmias occur and may be fatal if not quickly terminated 
– For example: ventricular tachycardia may cause cardiac arrest 

Mechanism of Action 
• Reduce automaticity (spontaneous depolarization of myocardial cells, including ectopic pacemakers) 
• Slow conduction of electrical impulses through the heart
• Prolong the refractory period of myocardial cells (so they are less likely to be prematurely activated by adjacent cells 
 

Benzodiazepines
All metabolites are active sedatives except the final glucuronide product. Elimination half-life varies a great deal from drug to drug.

?-Hydroxylation is a rapid route of metabolism that is unique to triazolam, midazolam, and alprazolam.
This accounts for the very rapid metabolism and short sedative actions of these drugs.

Pharmacological effects of benzodiazepines

- Antianxiety.
- Sedation.
- Anticonvulsant (including drug-induced convulsions).
- Amnesia, especially drugs like triazolam.
- Relax skeletal muscle (act on CNS polysynaptic pathways).

Indications

- IV sedation, (e.g., midazolam, diazepam, lorazepam).
- Antianxiety.
- Sleep induction.
- Anticonvulsant (e.g., diazepam, clonazepam).
- Panic disorders.
- Muscle relaxation.


Adverse effects

- Ataxia, confusion.
- Excessive sedation.
- Amnesia (not a desired effect with daytime sedation).
- Altered sleep patterns (increase stage 2 and decrease stage 4 sleep).

Sulfonylureas

1st generation
tolbutamide
chlorpropamide

2nd generation

glyburide
glimepiride
glipizide

Mechanism

glucose normally triggers insulin release from pancreatic β cells by increasing intracellular ATP
→ closes K+ channels → depolarization → ↑ Ca2+ influx → insulin release

sulfonylureas mimic action of glucose by closing K+ channels in pancreatic β cells 
→ depolarization → ↑ Ca2+ influx → insulin release

its use results in

↓ glucagon release
↑ insulin sensitivity in muscle and liver

Clinical use

type II DM

stimulates release of endogenous insulin 
cannot be used in type I DM due to complete lack of islet function

Toxicity

first generation

disulfiram-like effects
especially chlorpropamide

second generation

hypoglycemia
weight gain

Carbapenems: Broadest spectrum of beta-lactam antibiotics.

imipenem with cilastatin

meropenem

ertapenem

Monobactams: Unlike other beta-lactams, there is no fused ring attached to beta-lactam nucleus. Thus, there is less probability of cross-sensitivity reactions.

aztreonam

Beta-lactamase Inhibitors No antimicrobial activity. Their sole purpose is to prevent the inactivation of beta-lactam antibiotics by beta-lactamases, and as such, they are co-administered with beta-lactam antibiotics.

clavulanic acid

tazobactam

sulbactam