NEET MDS Lessons
Pharmacology
Non-barbiturate sedatives
1- Chloral hydrate is trichlorinated derivative of acetaldehyde that is converted to trichlorethanol in the body. It induces sleep in about 30 minutes and last up to 6 hr. it is irritant to GIT and produce unpleasant taste sensation.
2- Ramelteon melatonin receptors are thought to be involved in maintaining circadian rhythms underlying the sleep-wake cycle. Ramelteon is an agonist at MT1 and MT2 melatonin receptors , useful in patients with chronic insomnia with no rebound insomnia and
withdrawal symptoms
3- Ethanol (alcohol) it has antianxiety sedative effects but its toxic potential out ways its benefits.
Ethanol is a CNS depressant producing sedation and hypnosis with increasing dose.
Absorption of alcohol taken orally is rapid, it is highly lipid soluble, presence of food delayed its absorption, maximal blood concentration depend on total dose, sex, strength of the solution, the time over which it is taken, the presence of food and speed of metabolism.
Alcohol in the systemic circulation is oxidized in the liver principally 90% by alcohol dehydrogenase to acetaldehyde and then by acetaldehyde dehydrogenase to products that enter the citric cycle.
Alcohol metabolism by alcohol dehydrogenase follows first order kinetics in the smallest doses. Once the blood concentration exceeds about 10 mg/100 ml, the enzymatic processes are saturated and elimination rate no longer increases with increasing
concentration but become steady at 10-15 ml/ 1 hr. in occasional drinkers.
Thus alcohol is subject to dose dependant kinetics i.e. saturation or zero order kinetics.
Actions
- Ethanol acts on CNS in a manner similar to volatile anesthetic.
- It also enhances GABA so stimulating flux of chloride ions through ion channels.
- Other possible mode of action involve inhibition of Ca-channels and inhibition of excitatory NMDA receptors.
- Ethanol has non selective CNS depressant activity.
- It causes cutaneous vasodilatation, tachycardia and myocardial depression
Ibuprofen
used to relieve the symptoms of arthritis, primary dysmenorrhoea, fever; and as an analgesic, especially where there is an inflammatory component.
Indications
rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, primary dysmenorrhoea
fever, relief of acute and/or chronic pain states in which there is an inflammatory component
MOA
inhibition of cyclooxygenase (COX); thus inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis.
Other sedatives: carisoprodol, cyclobenzaprine, and methocarbamol are used for muscle relaxation.
Baclofen
1. Used in spasticity states to relax skeletal muscle.
2. Occasionally used in trigeminal neuralgia.
Antihistamines (first-generation H1 receptor blockers)
1. Used for sedation (e.g., diphenhydramine).
Ethyl alcohol
Benzodiazepines
All metabolites are active sedatives except the final glucuronide product.
Elimination half-life varies a great deal from drug to drug.
?-Hydroxylation is a rapid route of metabolism that is unique to triazolam,
midazolam, and alprazolam.
This accounts for the very rapid metabolism and short sedative actions of these
drugs.
Pharmacological effects of benzodiazepines
- Antianxiety.
- Sedation.
- Anticonvulsant (including drug-induced convulsions).
- Amnesia, especially drugs like triazolam.
- Relax skeletal muscle (act on CNS polysynaptic pathways).
Indications
- IV sedation, (e.g., midazolam, diazepam, lorazepam).
- Antianxiety.
- Sleep induction.
- Anticonvulsant (e.g., diazepam, clonazepam).
- Panic disorders.
- Muscle relaxation.
Adverse effects
- Ataxia, confusion.
- Excessive sedation.
- Amnesia (not a desired effect with daytime sedation).
- Altered sleep patterns (increase stage 2 and decrease stage 4 sleep).
ANTIBIOTICS
Chemotherapy: Drugs which inhibit or kill the infecting organism and have no/minimum effect on the recipient.
Antibiotic these are substances produced by microorganisms which suppress the growth of or kill other micro-organisms at very low concentrations.
Anti-microbial Agents: synthetic as well as naturally obtained drugs that attenuate micro-organism.
SYNTHETIC ORGANIC ANTIMICROBIAL DRUGS
Sulfonamides
Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole
Quinolones – Ciprofloxacin
ANTIBIOTICS THAT ACT ON THE BACTERIAL CELL WALL
Penicillins
Cephalosporins
Vancomycin
INHIBITORS OF BACTERIAL PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
Aminoglycosides - Gentamicin
Antitubercular Drugs: Isoniazid & Rifampin
Tetracyclines
Chloramphenicol
Macrolides – Erythromycin, Azithromycin
Clindamycin
Mupirocin
Linezolid
ANTIFUNGAL DRUGS
Polyene Antibiotics (Amphotericin B, Nystatin and Candicidin)
Imidazole and Triazole Antifungal Drugs
Flucytosine
Griseofulvin
ANTIPROTOZOAL DRUGS
Antimalarial Drugs – Quinine, Chloroquine, Primaquine
Other Antiprotozoal Drugs – Metronidazole, Diloxanide, Iodoquinol
ANTIHELMINTHIC DRUGS
Praziquantel
Mebendazole
Ivermectin
ANTIVIRAL DRUGS
Acyclovir
Ribavirin
Dideoxynucleosides
Protease inhibitors
DIURETICS
|
Specific Therapeutic Objective |
Clinical State(s) |
Drug(s) (Class) |
|
Draw fluid from tissue to vascular space reduce tissue edema |
Cerebral edema |
Mannitol (Osmotic) |
|
Decrease renal swelling |
Renal shutdown |
Glucose (Osmotic) |
|
Modest and/or sustained decrease in venous hydrostatic pressure |
Congestive heart failure |
Hydrochlorothiazide (thiazide) |
|
Aggressive and/or short-term decrease in venous hydrostatic pressure |
Congestive heart failure |
Furosemide (loop) |
|
Inhibit aldosterone action |
Hepatic cirrhosis |
triamterene (K+ sparing) |
|
Reduce potassium wasting 2o to other diuretic |
Hepatic cirrhosis |
triamterene (K+ sparing) |
|
Inhibit ADH action |
Inappropriate ADH secretion |
lithium (aquaretic) |
|
Increase calcium secretion |
Malignant hypercalcemia
|
Furosemide (loop) |
|
Reduce urine output |
Diabetes insidpidus |
Hydrochlorothiazide (thiazide) |
|
Urine alkalinization |
Various |
Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors |
Antiemetics
Antiemetic drugs are generally more effective in prophylaxis than treatment. Most antiemetic agents relieve nausea and vomiting by acting on the vomiting centre, dopamine receptors, chemoreceptors trigger zone (CTZ), cerebral cortex, vestibular apparatus, or a combination of these.
Drugs used in the treatment of nausea and vomiting belong to several different groups. These include:
1. Phenothiazines, such as chlorpromazine, act on CTZ and vomiting centre, block dopamine receptors, are effective in preventing or treating nausea and vomiting induced by drugs, radiation therapy, surgery and most other stimuli (e.g. pregnancy).
They are generally ineffective in motion sickness.
Droperidol had been used most often for sedation in endoscopy and surgery, usually in combination with opioids or benzodiazepines
2. Antihistamines such as promethazine and Dimenhyrinate are especially effective in prevention and treatment of motion.
3. Metoclopramide has both central and peripheral antiemetic effects. Centrally, it antagonizes the action of dopamine. Peripherally metoclopramide stimulates the release of acetylcholine, which in turn, increases the rate of gastric. It has similar indications to those of chlorpromazine.
4. Scopolamine, an anticholinergic drug, is very effective in reliving nausea & vomiting associated with motion sickness.
5. Ondansetron, a serotonin antagonist, is effective in controlling chemical-induced vomiting and nausea such those induced by anticancer drugs.
6. Benzodiazepines: The antiemetic potency of lorazepam and alprazolam is low. Their beneficial effects may be due to their sedative, anxiolytic, and amnesic properties